Skin thermal response assessed by infrared thermography during small-sided games in soccer players: a pilot study
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v74.118037Keywords:
Thermal asymmetries, thermal imaging, game situations, injury preventionAbstract
Introduction: Football is characterised by intermittent high-intensity actions interspersed with recovery phases. Monitoring training load is essential to optimize performance and prevent injuries. In this context, infrared thermography serves as a valuable tool for detecting thermal alterations related to physical exertion.
Objective: To analyze the skin temperature response of football players during small-sided games.
Methodology: A quantitative study with repeated measures in a single group was conducted. Mean skin temperature was recorded at three time points: before the 4x4 game (pre), immediately after (post), and after 10 minutes (final). Forty-eight male football players participated (24 ± 1 years; 176.7 ± 0.6 cm; 72.5 ± 3.5 kg; 12.6 ± 1.0% body fat).
Results: Significant variations were observed in lower-limb temperature across the measurement moments, with increases following exercise and decreases during recovery. The greatest changes occurred in the posterior and left legs (p < .001; ES = 0.4–0.8). In the upper limbs, significant differences were also noted, with reductions post-exercise and increases during the final phase, particularly in the anterior arms (p < .001; ES = 0.7–0.9). The most marked thermal asymmetries were found in the posterior thigh and, to a lesser extent, in the anterior leg (p < .05). The left posterior arm showed a significant post-exercise temperature rise with a moderate effect size (ES = 0.69).
Conclusion: Skin temperature varied according to the phase of play, demonstrating distinct thermal responses and indicating potential areas of muscular overload.
References
Adamczyk, J. G., Krasowska, I., Boguszewski, D., & Reaburn, P. (2016). The use of thermal imaging to assess the effectiveness of ice massage and cold-water immersion as methods for supporting post-exercise recovery. Journal of thermal biology, 60, 20-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.05.006
Espada, M. C., Jardim, M., Assunção, R., Estaca, A., Ferreira, C. C., Pessôa Filho, D. M., Verardi, C. E. L., Gamonales, J. M., & Santos, F. J. (2023). Lower Limb Unilateral and Bilateral Strength Asymmetry in High-Level Male Senior and Professional Football Players. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 11(11), 1579. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11111579
Bauer, P., Anzer, G., & Shaw, L. (2023). Putting team formations in association football into context. Journal of sports analytics, 9(1), 39-59. https://doi.org/10.3233/JSA-220620
Borg, G. (1998). Borg's perceived exertion and pain scales. Human kinetics.
Bourdon, P., Cardinale, M., Murray, A., Gastin, P., Kellmann, M., Varley, M. C., Gabbett, T., Coutts, A., Burgess, D., Gregson, W., & Cable, N. (2017). Monitoring athlete training loads: Consensus statement. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 12(2),161-170. https://doi.org/10.1123/IJSPP.2017-0208
Burke, L. M., Hawley, J. A., Wong, S. H., & Jeukendrup, A. E. (2011). Carbohydrates for training and competition. Journal of sports sciences, 29 Suppl 1, S17-S27.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2011.585473
Carvalho, J., Kunzler, M. R., Priego-Quesada, J. I., Aparicio, I., Pérez-Soriano, P., Machado, Á. S., & Carpes, F. P. (2021). Effects of 24 h Compression Interventions with Different Garments on Recovery Markers during Running. Life, 11(9), 905. https://doi.org/10.3390/life11090905
Clemente, F. M., Praça, G., Aquino, R., Castillo, D., Raya-González, J., & Rico-González, M. et al. (2023). Effects of pitch size on soccer players' physiological, physical, technical, and tactical responses during small-sided games: a meta-analytical comparison. Biology of Sport, 40(1), 111-147.
https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2023.110748
Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum, London
da Silva, W., Machado, Á. S., Souza, M. A., Kunzler, M. R., Priego-Quesada, J. I., & Carpes, F. P. (2018). Can exercise-induced muscle damage be related to changes in skin temperature?.Physiological measurement, 39(10), 104007. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/aae6df
de Carvalho, G., Girasol, C. E., Gonçalves, L. G. C., Guirro, E. C. O., & Guirro, R. R. J. (2021). Correlation between skin temperature in the lower limbs and biochemical marker, performance data, and clinical recovery scales. PloS one, 16(3), e0248653. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248653
Fernandes, A. A., Moreira, D. G., Brito, C. J., da Silva, C. D., Sillero-Quintana, M., Pimenta, E. M., Bach, A. J., Garcia, E. S., & Bouzas Marins, J. C. (2016). Validity of inner canthus temperature recorded by infrared thermography as a non-invasive surrogate measure for core temperature at rest, during exercise and recovery. Journal of thermal biology, 62(Pt A), 50-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.09.010
Fernández-Cuevas, I. (2019, noviembre). Aplicación de la termografía infrarroja para la prevención, seguimiento de lesiones y apoyo al diagnóstico en el deporte y la salud [Presentación oral]. 15º Congreso Internacional de Ciencias del Deporte y la Salud, Pontevedra, España. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339816234
Fernández-Cuevas, I., Bouzas Marins, J. C., Arnáiz-Lastras, J., Gómez-Carmona, P. M., Piñonosa Cano, S., García-Concepción, M. Á., & Sillero-Quintana, M. (2015). Classification of factors influencing the use of infrared thermography in humans: A review. Infrared Physics & Technology, 71, 28-55.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2015.02.007
Gómez-Carmona, P., Fernández-Cuevas, I., Sillero-Quintana, M., Arnaiz-Lastras, J., & Navandar, A. (2020). Infrared Thermography Protocol on Reducing the Incidence of Soccer Injuries. Journal of sport rehabilitation, 29(8), 1222–1227. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2019-0056
Hildebrandt, C., Raschner, C., & Ammer, K. (2010). An overview of recent application of medical infrared thermography in sports medicine in Austria. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 10(5), 4700–4715. https://doi.org/10.3390/s100504700
Hu, C., Du, N., Liu, Z., & Song, Y. (2025). Can Infrared Thermal Imaging Reflect Exercise Load? An Incremental Cycling Exercise Study. Bioengineering (Basel, Switzerland), 12(3), 280.
https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12030280
Korkmaz, S., Thapa, R. K., Relph, N., Çalık, İ., & Uysal, H. Ş. (2025). Thermal imaging responses of lower-limb muscles following anaerobic testing in male soccer players: A time-series approach. PloS one, 20(10), e0331102. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331102
Lahiri, B. B., Bagavathiappan, S., Jayakumar, T., & Philip, J. (2012). Medical applications of infrared thermography: A review. Infrared Physics & Technology, 55(4), 221-235.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2012.03.007
León, H., Sánchez, A. & Ramírez, J. (2011). Demandas fisiológicas y psicológicas en el fútbol. Revista de Investigación Cuerpo, Cultura y Movimiento, 1(2), 41-55. https://doi.org/10.15332/s2248-4418.2011.0002.02
Macedo, A., Almeida, T., Massini, D., de Oliveira, D., Espada, M., Robalo, R., Hernández-Beltrán, V., Gamonales, J., Vilela, A., & Pessôa, D. (2024). Métodos de monitoreo de carga para controlar la efectividad del entrenamiento sobre el acondicionamiento físico y la planificación de la participación: una revisión narrativa. Ciencias aplicadas, 14(22), 10465. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210465
Machado, Á. S., da Silva, W., Priego-Quesada, J. I., & Carpes, F. P. (2023). Can infrared thermography serve as an alternative to assess cumulative fatigue in women?. Journal of thermal biology, 115, 103612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2023.103612
Majano, C., Garcia-Unanue, J., Fernández-Cuevas, I., Escamilla-Galindo, V., Alonso-Callejo, A., Sanchez-Sanchez, J., Gallardo, L., & Felipe, J. L. (2023). Association between physical demands, skin temperature and wellbeing status in elite football players. Scientific reports, 13(1), 13780.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-40396-y
Masur, L., Brand, F., & Düking, P. (2024). Response of infrared thermography related parameters to (non-)sport specific exercise and relationship with internal load parameters in individual and team sport athletes-a systematic review. Frontiers in sports and active living, 6, 1479608. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2024.1479608
McKay, A. K. A., Stellingwerff, T., Smith, E. S., Martin, D. T., Mujika, I., Goosey-Tolfrey, V. L., Sheppard, J., & Burke, L. M. (2022). Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 17(2), 317-331.
https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2021-0451
Mendonça Teixeira, R., Dellagrana, R. A., Priego-Quesada, J. I., Machado, J. C. B. P., Fernandes da Silva, J., Pacheco Dos Reis, T. M., & Rossato, M. (2020). Muscular Strength Imbalances Are not Associated with Skin Temperature Asymmetries in Soccer Players. Life (Basel, Switzerland), 10(7), 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/life10070102
Metoyer, C. J., Lever, J. R., Smith-Hale, V., Klaus, C., Ocobock, C., Huebner, A., McGinty, M., Hauenstein, J. D., & Wagle, J. P. (2025). Exploring the Use of Thermography for Monitoring Physiological Responses to Training in Division-I Collegiate Female Soccer Players. Journal of biophotonics, 18(8), e70016. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.70016
Moreira, D. G., Costello, J. T., Brito, C. J., Adamczyk, J. G., Ammer, K., Bach, A. J. E., Costa, C. M. A., Eglin, C., Fernandes, A. A., Fernández-Cuevas, I., Ferreira, J. J. A., Formenti, D., Fournet, D., Havenith, G., Howell, K., Jung, A., Kenny, G. P., Kolosovas-Machuca, E. S., Maley, M. J., Merla, A., … Sillero-Quintana, M. (2017). Thermographic imaging in sports and exercise medicine: A Delphi study and consensus statement on the measurement of human skin temperature. Journal of thermal biology, 69, 155-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2017.07.006
Priego-Quesada, J. I., Oficial-Casado, F., Gandia-Soriano, A., & Carpes, F. P. (2019). A preliminary investigation about the observation of regional skin temperatures following cumulative training loads in triathletes during training camp. Journal of thermal biology, 84, 431-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2019.07.035
Ring, E. F. J., & Ammer, K. (2012). Infrared thermal imaging in medicine. Physiological Measurement, 33(3), R33-R46. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/33/3/R33
Rolong, C. & Rebolledo-Cobos, R. (2021). Relación entre asimetrías en diferentes pruebas de salto y lesiones musculoesqueléticas en futbolistas profesionales de Colombia. Revista Biociencias, 16(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.18041/2390-0512/biociencias.1.7836
Sarmento, H., Martinho, D. V., Gouveia, É. R., Afonso, J., Chmura, P., Field, A., Savedra, N. O., Oliveira, R., Praça, G., Silva, R., Barrera-Díaz, J., & Clemente, F. M. (2024). The Influence of Playing Position on Physical, Physiological, and Technical Demands in Adult Male Soccer Matches: A Systematic Scoping Review with Evidence Gap Map. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 54(11), 2841-2864.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-024-02088-z
Selfe, J., Hardaker, N., Thewlis, D., & Karki, A. (2006). An accurate and reliable method of thermal data analysis in thermal imaging of the anterior knee for use in cryotherapy research. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 87(12), 1630-1635.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2006.08.346
Silva, A., Teixeira, H. & Bouzas, J. (2022). Bases fisiológicas da aplicação da termografia para controle de carga no futebol: uma breve revisão. Revista Brasileira de Futebol, 15(3), 3–20. https://rbf.ufv.br/index.php/RBFutebol/article/view/368
Wen, X., Song, F., Yang, L., & Xu, Q. (2024). Small-Sided Soccer Games Promote Greater Adaptations on Vertical Jump and Change-of-Direction Deficit and Similar Adaptations in Aerobic Capacity than High-Intensity Interval Training in Females. Journal of sports science & medicine, 23(2), 445-454. https://doi.org/10.52082/jssm.2024.445
Wilmore, J. & Costill, D. (2004). Fisiología del esfuerzo y del deporte (5ª ed.). Editorial Paidotribo.
Zhang, H. Y., Son, S., Yoo, B. R., & Youk, T. M. (2023). Reference Standard for Digital Infrared Thermography of the Surface Temperature of the Lower Limbs. Bioengineering (Basel, Switzerland), 10(3), 283. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering10030283
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Marvyn Moya Ortega, Walter Gómez Sánchez, Estefânia Estrada Ocampo, Juan David Fernández Villada, John Garcia Tamayo, Angie Yetzery Moya Ortega
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and ensure the magazine the right to be the first publication of the work as licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of authorship of the work and the initial publication in this magazine.
- Authors can establish separate additional agreements for non-exclusive distribution of the version of the work published in the journal (eg, to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Is allowed and authors are encouraged to disseminate their work electronically (eg, in institutional repositories or on their own website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as to a subpoena more Early and more of published work (See The Effect of Open Access) (in English).
This journal provides immediate open access to its content (BOAI, http://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/boaifaq.htm#openaccess) on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. The authors may download the papers from the journal website, or will be provided with the PDF version of the article via e-mail.
