Psychological well-being at work among moroccan fitness coaches: a psychometric and sociodemographic analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v81.118946Keywords:
Psychological well-being, fitness industry, fitness coaches, well-being at work, Occupational healthAbstract
Introduction: Psychological well-being at work is a key construct in sport psychology and occupational health, especially in high-demand professions such as fitness coaching.
Objective: This study aimed to validate a psychological well-being at work model among Moroccan fitness coaches and examine sociodemographic differences.
Methodology: A two-stage design was used. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted with 110 coaches to assess the structure of the psychological well-being at work scale. A confirmatory factor analysis using SPSS-AMOS was then performed with 355. Model fit, validity, and reliability were tested, and non-parametric tests examined group differences.
Results: The scale showed a stable factorial structure with good psychometric properties. Significant differences emerged only for the feeling of competence, with males scoring higher than females. Divorced coaches reported higher psychological well-being at work than married and single coaches. No significant differences were found for age, education, experience, or work arrangement.
Discussion: Sociodemographic factors show only limited and specific effects on psychological well-being at work. Gender differences may reflect structural inequalities in coaching contexts, while higher well-being among divorced coaches may be linked to adaptation and personal growth. Overall, psychological well-being at work is more influenced by psychosocial and contextual factors than by demographic characteristics.
Conclusion: The study confirms the validity of the psychological well-being at work model in Moroccan fitness coaches and highlights the need to further explore contextual determinants such as technostress and social media effects in coaching environments.
References
Baldock, L., Cropley, B., Neil, R., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2021). Stress and Mental Well-Being Experiences of Professional Football Coaches. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2020-0087
Bentzen, M., Lemyre, N., & Kenttä, G. (2017). A Comparison of High-Performance Football Coaches Ex-periencing High- Versus Low-Burnout Symptoms Across a Season of Play: Quality of Motivation and Recovery Matters. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2016-0045
Bentzen, M., Lemyre, P.-N., & Kenttä, G. (2014). The process of burnout among professional sport coaches through the lens of self-determination theory: A qualitative approach. Sports Coaching Review, 3(2), 101‑116. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2015.1035050
Bentzen, M., Lemyre, P.-N., & Kenttä, G. (2016). Development of exhaustion for high-performance coaches in association with workload and motivation: A person-centered approach. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 10‑19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.06.004
Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (1992). The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. JAMA, 267(9), 1244‑1252.
Churchill, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64‑73. https://doi.org/10.2307/3150876
Cropley, B., Baldock, L., Mellalieu, S. D., Neil, R., Wagstaff, C. R. D., & Wadey, R. (2016). Coping with the Demands of Professional Practice: Sport Psychology Consultants’ Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2015-0125
Dagenais-Desmarais, V. (2010). Du bien-être psychologique au travail : Fondements théoriques, con-ceptualisation et instrumentation du construit [Doctoral dissertation, Université de Montréal]. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/3916
Dagenais-Desmarais, V., & Savoie, A. (2012). What is psychological well-being, really? A grassroots ap-proach from the organizational sciences. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(4), 659–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9285-3
Davis, L., & Jowett, S. (2014). Coach-athlete attachment and the quality of the coach-athlete relation-ship: Implications for athlete’s well-being. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(15), 1454‑1464. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.898183
Davis, L., Jowett, S., & Sörman, D. (2022). The Importance of Positive Relationships for Coaches’ Effec-tiveness and Well-Being. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2021-0065Davis, L., Jowett, S., & Sörman, D. (2022). The Importance of Positive Relationships for Coaches’ Effectiveness and Well-Being. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2021-0065
Didymus, F., Norris, L., Potts, A., & Staff, H. (2021). Psychological stress and performance. In Z. Zenko & L. Jones (Eds.), Essentials of exercise and sport psychology: An open access textbook (pp. 683–709). Society for Transparency, Openness, and Replication in Kinesiology. https://doi.org/10.51224/B1029
Diener, E. (2009). Subjective well-being. In The science of well-being: The collected works of Ed Diener (pp. 11–58). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2350-6_2
Diener, E., Sapyta, J. J., & Suh, E. (1998). Subjective well-being is essential to well-being. Psychological Inquiry, 9(1), 33–37. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0901_3
Dodge, R., Daly, A. P., Huyton, J., & Sanders, L. D. (2012). The challenge of defining wellbeing. Interna-tional JournalofWellbeing,2(3),222–235. https://www.internationaljournalofwellbeing.org/index.php/ijow/article/view/89
Durand-Bush, N., Collins, J., & McNeill, K. (2012). Women coaches’ experiences of stress and self-regulation: A multiple case study. International Journal of Coaching Science, 6(2), 21–43.
Gasper, D. (2010). Understanding the diversity of conceptions of well-being and quality of life. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 39(3), 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2009.11.006
Fletcher, D., & Wagstaff, C. R. D. (2009). Organizational psychology in elite sport: Its emergence, appli-cation and future. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(4), 427‑434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.03.009
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39‑50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312
Giles, S., Fletcher, D., Arnold, R., Ashfield, A., & Harrison, J. (2020). Measuring well-being in sport per-formers: Where are we now and how do we progress? Sports Medicine, 50(7), 1255–1270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01274-z
González, S., & Ramírez, X. (2017). Bienestar subjetivo y factores laborales en entrenadores deportivos colombianos. Universitas Psychologica, 16(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy16-1.bflc
Harris, G. E., & Cameron, J. E. (2005). Multiple Dimensions of Organizational Identification and Com-mitment as Predictors of Turnover Intentions and Psychological Well-Being. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 37(3), 159‑169. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087253
Hill, D. M., Brown, G., Lambert, T.-L., Mackintosh, K., Knight, C., & Gorczynski, P. (2021). Factors per-ceived to affect the wellbeing and mental health of coaches and practitioners working within elite sport. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 10(4), 504‑518. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000263
Kaski, S., & Kinnunen, U. (2021). Work-related ill- and well-being among Finnish sport coaches: Explor-ing the relationships between job demands, job resources, burnout and work engagement. IN-TERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCE AND COACHING, 16(2), 262‑271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954120967794
Knight, C. J., Reade, I. L., Selzler, A.-M., & Rodgers, W. M. (2013). Personal and situational factors influ-encing coaches’ perceptions of stress. Journal of Sports Sciences, 31(10), 1054–1063. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.759659
Hair, J. F., Risher, J. J., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203
Harris, G. E., & Cameron, J. E. (2005). Multiple dimensions of organizational identification and com-mitment as predictors of turnover intentions and psychological well-being. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 37(3), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087253
Keyes, C. L. M. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090197
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer Publishing Company.
Lundkvist, E., Gustafsson, H., Davis, P., & Hassmén, P. (2016). Workaholism, Home–Work/Work–Home Interference, and Exhaustion Among Sports Coaches. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 10(3), 222‑236. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2015-0029
McCormack, H. M. (2019). Practicing what we preach: An investigation of the work-based well-being of applied sport psychologists [Thesis, University of Limerick]. https://researchrepository.ul.ie/articles/thesis/Practicing_what_we_preach_an_investigation_of_the_work-based_well-being_of_applied_sport_psychologists/19821988/1
McNeill, K., Durand-Bush, N., & Lemyre, P.-N. (2017). Understanding coach burnout and underlying emotions: A narrative approach. Sports Coaching Review, 6(2), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2016.1163008
Morales, J., & Londoño, J. (2018). Bienestar psicológico en deportistas y entrenadores: Implicaciones contextuales y sociales. Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología del Ejercicio y el Deporte, 13(2), 85–94.
Muñoz, J., & Torres, C. (2022). Diferencias de género y bienestar subjetivo en contextos laborales depor-tivos. Revista Iberoamericana de Calidad de Vida, 11(1), 59–72. https://doi.org/10.15366/ricv2022.11.1.0059
Norris, L. A., Didymus, F. F., & Kaiseler, M. (2017). Stressors, coping, and well-being among sports coaches: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 33, 93–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.08.005
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). An overview of psychological measurement. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Clinical diag-nosis of mental disorders: A handbook (pp. 97–146). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2490-4_4
Olusoga, P., Butt, J., Hays, K., & Maynard, I. (2009). Stress in Elite Sports Coaching : Identifying Stressors. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(4), 442‑459. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200903222921
Poczwardowski, A. (2019). Deconstructing sport and performance psychology consultant: Expert, per-son, performer, and self-regulator. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(5), 427‑444. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2017.1390484
Potts, A. J., Didymus, F. F., & Kaiseler, M. (2022). Bringing Sports Coaches’ Experiences of Primary Ap-praisals and Psychological Well-being to Life using Composite Vignettes. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 14(5), 778‑795. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2021.1948913
Quartiroli, A., Wagstaff, C. R. D., & Etzel, E. F. (2019). The professional quality of life of sport psycholo-gists : Development of a novel conceptualization and measure. Professional Psychology: Re-search and Practice, 50(3), 155‑167. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000213
Quartiroli, A., Wagstaff, C. R. D., & Thelwell, R. (2022). The what and the how of self-care for sport psy-chology practitioners: A delphi study. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 34(6), 1352‑1371. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2021.1964107
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141‑166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness (p. xii, 756). The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806
Robertson, I., & Cooper, C. (2011). Well-being. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230306738
Rodríguez, A., & Pérez, D. (2019). Relación entre bienestar psicológico y variables sociodemográficas en profesionales del deporte. Revista de Estudios en Psicología, 22(2), 147–158.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(4), 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772395
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.
Stebbings, J., Taylor, I. M., & Spray, C. M. (2015). The relationship between psychological well- and ill-being, and perceived autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles: A longitudinal study of sport coaches. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 19, 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.02.002
Stebbings, J., Taylor, I. M., Spray, C. M., & Ntoumanis, N. (2012). Antecedents of perceived coach inter-personal behaviors: The coaching environment and coach psychological well- and ill-being. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34(4), 481‑502. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.34.4.481
Ursin, H., & Eriksen, H. R. (2004). The cognitive activation theory of stress. Psych-neuro-endocrinology, 29(5), 567‑592. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(03)00091-X
Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudai-monia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 678–691. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Abdelouahd Ouazoul, Zakaria Lahrache, Said Ihbour, Abdelmounaim Boulhanna, Nadia Jemjami
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and ensure the magazine the right to be the first publication of the work as licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of authorship of the work and the initial publication in this magazine.
- Authors can establish separate additional agreements for non-exclusive distribution of the version of the work published in the journal (eg, to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Is allowed and authors are encouraged to disseminate their work electronically (eg, in institutional repositories or on their own website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as to a subpoena more Early and more of published work (See The Effect of Open Access) (in English).
This journal provides immediate open access to its content (BOAI, http://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/boaifaq.htm#openaccess) on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. The authors may download the papers from the journal website, or will be provided with the PDF version of the article via e-mail.
