Moderate and excessive exercise affect sperm quality and oxidative stress differently in rats
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v83.120042Keywords:
exercise intensity, sperm quality, testosterone, oxidative stressAbstract
Introduction: Exercise intensity influences male reproductive function. Moderate exercise may promote physiological adaptation, whereas excessive training can induce oxidative stress and endocrine disturbances.
Objective: This study investigated the differential effects of moderate and excessive aerobic exercise on sperm quality, testosterone, and oxidative stress biomarkers in male Wistar rats.
Methodology: Twenty-four male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to control, moderate-exercise (20–25 min/day), and excessive-exercise (50 min/day) groups. Swimming exercise was performed for 6 weeks. Sperm concentration, motility, morphology, serum testosterone, testicular weight, malondialdehyde (MDA), and creatine kinase (CK) were assessed using standard laboratory procedures.
Results: Moderate exercise produced non-significant improvements in sperm quality and testosterone, with mild changes in oxidative stress. In contrast, excessive exercise significantly reduced sperm concentration, motility, morphology, and testosterone (all p < 0.001), while increasing MDA and CK (both p < 0.001) and reducing testicular weight (p < 0.001).
Discussion: These findings indicate that reproductive responses to aerobic exercise are intensity-dependent. Moderate exercise appeared to maintain reproductive homeostasis, whereas excessive exercise was associated with impaired spermatogenesis, hormonal disruption, and increased oxidative stress. The observed alterations may reflect a physiological stress response exceeding the body's adaptive capacity.
Conclusions: Excessive aerobic exercise may adversely affect male reproductive function through oxidative stress and hormonal disturbances, whereas moderate exercise appears compatible with reproductive preservation. Further studies should investigate the underlying molecular and histopathological mechanisms.
References
A., Hadi, N., Ali Zaidi, I., Kamal, Z., . A., Ullah Khan, R., . R., Hashim Khan, M., & Omair, F. (2024). Estimation of Serum Malondialdehyde (a Marker of Oxidative Stress) as a Predictive Biomarker for the Severity of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) and Cardiovascular Outcomes. Cureus, 16(9), e69756. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.69756
Agarwal, A., Mulgund, A., Hamada, A., & Chyatte, M. R. (2015). A unique view on male infertility around the globe. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 13(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12958-015-0032-1
Aksglaede, L., Petersen, J. H., Main, K. M., Skakkebæk, N. E., & Juul, A. (2007). High normal testosterone levels in infants with non-mosaic Klinefelter’s syndrome. European Journal of Endocrinology, 157(3), 345–350. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-07-0310
Antinozzi, C., Di Luigi, L., Sireno, L., Caporossi, D., Dimauro, I., & Sgrò, P. (2025). Protective Role of Physical Activity and Antioxidant Systems During Spermatogenesis. Biomolecules, 15(4), 478. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15040478
Dewangga, Mahendra Wahyu, Taufiqurrachman Nasihun, I. I. . (2021). Dampak Olahraga Berlebihan Terhadap Kualitas Sperma Mahendra Wahyu Dewangga. Jurnal Penelitian Kesehatan Suara Forikes, 12(11), 58–61. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.33846/sf12115
Dewangga, M. W., Faozi, E., Wilger, R. V., & Medistianto, T. N. R. (2024). Effect of Resistance Training with Gym Machines On Muscle Strength and Body Mass Index in Obese Women Student College. Retos, 56, 514–520. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v56.104022
Dewangga, M. W., Irianto, D. P., Dimyati, Sumaryanto, Nasihun, T., Febrianta, Y., Wahyuni, Wijianto, & Agustiyawan. (2021). Different Effects of Acute and Chronic Strenuous Physical Exercise on Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Malondialdehyde (MDA) Levels, and Sperm Quality of the Wistar Rats. Journal of Kerman University of Medical Sciences, 28(6), 539–547. https://doi.org/10.22062/jkmu.2021.91825
Dewangga, M. W., Susilo, T. E., Cahyadi, M. M., Saputra, H., Furqony, I. Y., Putra, Z. Y., Wilger, R. V., Medistianto, T. N. R., Candrika, A. A., & Rosyid, F. N. (2024). Physical performance and markers of muscle damage response after single soccer matches in amateur women’s soccer players. Fizjoterapia Polska, 2024(2), 136–143. https://doi.org/10.56984/8ZG5608X8S
Dewangga, M. W., Wijianto, A. W., Faozi, E., Cahyadi, M. M., Saputra, H., Furqony, I. Y., Putra, Z. Y., Wilger, Ri. V., Medistianto, T. N. R., Candrika, A. A., Kurniawan, A., Irawan, D., Sirada, A., Hikmah, A. N., Naufal, A. F., Pristianto, A., Rahman, F., & Rahayu, U. B. (2024). Biomarkers of Muscle Damage and Physical Performance After Soccer Matches for Women’s Soccer Teams. Спортске Науке и Здравље - АПЕИРОН, 27(V), 241–247. https://doi.org/10.7251/SSH24V005D
Dutta, S., Majzoub, A., & Agarwal, A. (2019). Oxidative stress and sperm function: A systematic review on evaluation and management. Arab Journal of Urology, 17(2), 87–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/2090598X.2019.1599624
Finaund, J., Lac, G., & Filaire, E. (2006). Oxidative Stress Relationship with Exercise and Training. Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(4), 327–358. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636040-00004.
Fleming, S. D., & Thomson, L. K. (2025). The Oxidative Stress of Human Sperm Cryopreservation. Antioxidants, 14(4), 402. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox14040402
Ghaffari, M. A., & Rostami, M. (2013). The effect of cigarette smoking on human sperm creatine kinase activity: As an ATP buffering system in sperm. International Journal of Fertility and Sterility, 6(4), 258–265.
Gharagozloo, P., & Aitken, R. J. (2011). The role of sperm oxidative stress in male infertility and the significance of oral antioxidant therapy. Human Reproduction, 26(7), 1628–1640. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/der132
Hackney, A. C. (2008). Effects of endurance exercise on the reproductive system of men: The “exercise-hypogonadal male condition.” Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 31(10), 932–938. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03346444
Hayes, L. D., Herbert, P., Sculthorpe, N. F., & Grace, F. M. (2017). Exercise training improves free testosterone in lifelong sedentary aging men. Endocrine Connections, 6(5), 306–310. https://doi.org/10.1530/EC-17-0082
Houda, A., Nyaz, S., Mohamed Sobhy, B., Hussein Bosilah, A., Romeo, M., Peter Michael, J., & Mohamad Eid, H. (2022). Seminiferous Tubules and Spermatogenesis. In Male Reproductive Anatomy. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98917
Kalwar, Q., Chu, M., Ahmad, A. A., Ding, X., Wu, X., Bao, P., & Yan, P. (2020). Morphometric evaluation of spermatogenic cells and seminiferous tubules and exploration of luteinizing hormone beta polypeptide in testis of datong yak. Animals, 10(1), 66. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10010066
Li, W., Chen, L., Mohammad Sajadi, S., Baghaei, S., & Salahshour, S. (2024). The impact of acute and chronic aerobic and resistance exercise on stem cell mobilization: A review of effects in healthy and diseased individuals across different age groups. Regenerative Therapy, 27, 464–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reth.2024.04.013
Mukherjee, A., Haldar, C., & Vishwas, D. K. (2014). Melatonin prevents dexamethasone-induced testicular oxidative stress and germ cell apoptosis in golden hamster, Mesocricetus auratus. Andrologia, n/a-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.12357
Ortiz-Carrera, L., Valdez, R. A., Mondragón, J. A., Gariglio, P., Zarco, L., Valencia, J., & Romano, M. C. (2015). Estrogen synthesis and secretion during postnatal testicular development in male goats: In situ aromatase mRNA expression. Small Ruminant Research, 130, 146–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2015.07.013
Patel, H., Alkhawam, H., Madanieh, R., Shah, N., Kosmas, C. E., & Vittorio, T. J. (2017). Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise training effects on the cardiovascular system. World Journal of Cardiology, 9(2), 134. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v9.i2.134
Powers, S. K., Goldstein, E., Schrager, M., & Ji, L. L. (2023). Exercise Training and Skeletal Muscle Antioxidant Enzymes: An Update. Antioxidants, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12010039
Ramadan, W., Xirouchaki, C. E., & El-Gilany, A.-H. (2025). The Comparative Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training and Traditional Resistance Training on Hormonal Responses in Young Women: A 10-Week Intervention Study. Sports, 13(3), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13030067
Roberts, A. C., McClure, R. D., Weiner, R. I., & Brooks, G. A. (1993). Overtraining affects male reproductive status. Fertility and Sterility, 60(4), 686–692. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)56223-2
Silva, J. V., Santiago, J., Matos, B., Henriques, M. C., Patrício, D., Martins, A. D., Duarte, J. A., Ferreira, R., Alves, M. G., Oliveira, P., Oliveira, P. F., & Fardilha, M. (2022). Effects of Age and Lifelong Moderate-Intensity Exercise Training on Rats’ Testicular Function. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(19), 11619. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms231911619
Smith, J. A. B., Murach, K. A., Dyar, K. A., & Zierath, J. R. (2023). Exercise metabolism and adaptation in skeletal muscle. In Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology (Vol. 24, Issue 9, pp. 607–632). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-023-00606-x
Smith, L. B., & Walker, W. H. (2014). The regulation of spermatogenesis by androgens. Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology, 30, 2–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2014.02.012
Song, W., Peng, Y., Jiang, Z., & Quan, Z. (2025). Effectiveness of exercise interventions on sperm quality: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 16(March), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2025.1537271
Vaamonde, D., Da Silva-Grigoletto, M. E., García-Manso, J. M., Barrera, N., & Vaamonde-Lemos, R. (2012). Physically active men show better semen parameters and hormone values than sedentary men. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 112(9), 3267–3273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-011-2304-6
Vaamonde, D., du Plessis, S. S., & Agarwal, A. (2016). Exercise and human reproduction: Induced fertility disorders and possible therapies. Exercise and Human Reproduction: Induced Fertility Disorders and Possible Therapies, 1–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3402-7
Wang, Y., Fu, X., & Li, H. (2025). Mechanisms of oxidative stress-induced sperm dysfunction. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 16(February), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2025.1520835
Williams, N. I., Young, J. C., McArthur, J. W., Bullen, B., Skrinar, G. S., & Turnbull, B. (1995). Strenuous exercise with caloric restriction: effect on luteinizing hormone secretion. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(10), 1390–1398.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Mahendra Wahyu Dewangga, Nurhayati Nurhayati, Ahmad Erlan, Riswal Nafi Siregar, Anton Suryatma, Lutfah Rif'ati, Ika Saptarini, Pramita Andarwati, Lelly Andayasari, Reza Yuridian Purwoko, Aris Yulianto, Raflizar Raflizar
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and ensure the magazine the right to be the first publication of the work as licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of authorship of the work and the initial publication in this magazine.
- Authors can establish separate additional agreements for non-exclusive distribution of the version of the work published in the journal (eg, to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Is allowed and authors are encouraged to disseminate their work electronically (eg, in institutional repositories or on their own website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as to a subpoena more Early and more of published work (See The Effect of Open Access) (in English).
This journal provides immediate open access to its content (BOAI, http://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/boaifaq.htm#openaccess) on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. The authors may download the papers from the journal website, or will be provided with the PDF version of the article via e-mail.
